4 CHAPTER II LITERATURE STUDY II.1Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Carbon Capture and Storage involve several processes in its application. The initial step involves implementing carbon capture, specifically the process of capturing and gathering carbon dioxide emissions generated by diverse industries, as well as waste produced during oil and natural gas production. Subsequently, the captured carbon dioxide is transported to a suitable geological storage site that fulfills the necessary criteria for geological storage. Finally, the carbon dioxide is injected into the selected geological storage location, situated at a considerable distance from the atmosphere, where it will remain stored for an extended duration. Figure 2.1 illustrates the three primary processes involved in carbon capture and storage (CCS), namely capture, transport, and storage. Figure 2.1. CCS Schematic (Choudhary, 2016) In south-east Asia, Indonesia has the biggest storage potential for CCS. Furthermore, it is interesting to point out that Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei possess substantial capability for carbon dioxide (CO 2) storage. (Li et al., 2022). The pie chart in Figure 2.2. below illustrates that Indonesia possesses the capacity to store 41% of the overall storage capacity within the Southeast Asian region. 5 Figure 2.2. Estimated CO 2 Storage in Southeast Asia (Li et al., 2022) The primary challenge in the implementation of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology stems from several factors. These include the lack of financial incentives to address the costs associated with greenhouse gas emissions, the uncertainty surrounding future regulations pertaining to coal-fired power generation and CO 2 storage, and the necessity for further research, development, and democratic processes. (Gibbins & Chalmers, 2008). In addition, the location for CO 2 storage must be chosen to be geologically secure for a significant period of time. In addition, the connection between the source and sink for CCS where CO 2 will be captured and transported to the storage area. Therefore, it is essential to understand the physical and hydraulic properties of anthropogenic CO 2, especially in the context of CO2 transport. II.1.1. CO 2 Capture The choice of CO 2 capture method and subsequent separation from the gas stream originating from the LNG field will have implications for cost, technology, facility type, and the quality of CO 2 produced and transported for geological storage.